Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. This involves two aspects of networking. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). All of the families used internal generalized exchange which can be referred to as bonding capital (Putnam 2000, 2020). Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. Unlike the functionalist and conflict views, it does not try to explain why we have stratification in the first place. Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power Symbolic interactionism and the concept of power . Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language . Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. All of the families used internal generalized exchange which can be referred to as bonding capital (Putnam 2000, 2020). For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. Although Boston elites tended to discriminate against the Irish, some Irish social entrepreneurs become more powerful over time. In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). Relative power is the difference between your dependencies as compared to the other, and the others dependencies on you. And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. The central concepts of the approach. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). But it doesn't just stop there. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. The middle category of high and low status persons could move up or down depending on the circumstances. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. [1] I use exchange theory since it is better suited to my purposes than Collins rather short discussion of power and status rituals (2002: 111-114; 348-349). They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. Authors Alex Dennis 1 , Peter J Martin Affiliation 1 School of English, Sociology, Politics and Contemporary History, University of Salford, UK. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. The whole process of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the part of both the oppressors and the subordinates. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). [1] This theory is elaborated by Samuel Bacharach and Edward Lawler (1980, 1981; Cook and Rice ) as power being the inverse of the number of valued alternatives that one may have in the sense of not being dependent on the relationship with the other. Given these points, there are clear differences between the structural functionalist, social conflict and symbolic interaction theories. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. Generalized exchange looks to the betterment of the group as a whole, while restricted exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. Applying Symbolic Interaction Theory to Everyday Life This approach to studying the social world was outlined by Herbert Blumer in his book Symbolic Interactionism in 1937. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. . He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. In simple terms, people in society understand their social worlds through communication the exchange of meaning through language and symbols. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). While this more or less goes back to Thomas Hobbes and the war of all against all, we do not have to flip flop on the basic motivations of humans and see that we all are motivated by both love and hate, cooperation or conflict, or caring and violence. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. In every day go along with the flow and follow established norms of proper conduct, citizens pursue a form of generalized exchange whereby the good of the community is pursued. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. . Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. What Is Symbolic Interactionism? Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. The same would apply to group exchange. But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. While this more or less goes back to Thomas Hobbes and the war of all against all, we do not have to flip flop on the basic motivations of humans and see that we all are motivated by both love and hate, cooperation or conflict, or caring and violence. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. While this more or less goes back to Thomas Hobbes and the war of all against all, we do not have to flip flop on the basic motivations of humans and see that we all are motivated by both love and hate, cooperation or conflict, or caring and violence. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. It is also discussed in a rather ethnomethodological form in Josh Pacewiczs Partisans and Partners (2016), though the gift relationship large resembles these other generalized exchange forms. Keywords Sexual Harassment Emotional Experience Identity Work Emotional Labor The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. Symbolic interactionism provides a major contribution to understanding inequality by illuminating the various manifestations and contexts of inequality at the micro, everyday level of social life. Expand 54 Emotion and Social Life: A Symbolic Interactionist Analysis S. Shott Sociology American Journal of Sociology 1979 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). These reactions will also relate to the processes of positive, negative, and neutral generalized others discussed in the previous section. In every day go along with the flow and follow established norms of proper conduct, citizens pursue a form of generalized exchange whereby the good of the community is pursued. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. [1] This theory is elaborated by Samuel Bacharach and Edward Lawler (1980, 1981; Cook and Rice ) as power being the inverse of the number of valued alternatives that one may have in the sense of not being dependent on the relationship with the other. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. They then become one of the largest legal firms in a 10 state area. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. Thus, social stratification is a result of these individual interactions. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. We will refer to those who operate with more restricted exchange as opportunists in the next chapter on citizen selves. Symbolic interactionism concentrates on individuals who assign, share and agree on symbolic meanings and mannerisms. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. Reading across the tables columns, the first three rows represent higher status persons, and the latter three rows are lower status persons. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. These may be negotiated by a leader but the followers know the terms of the agreement and are quick to point out any violations. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). Symbolic Interactionism. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and meaning in shaping social interactions and the development of social norms and institutions. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. While it might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism is how your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters. Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. Sociologists working from this perspective would be interested in understanding how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the way people interact with each . Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. 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An ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a background! To those who operate with more restricted exchange involves an important time dimension ( see 2 table. Be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may to! Sexual Harassment Emotional Experience Identity work Emotional Labor the low-status people will have negative generalized others vis -- vis high-status... Legal firms in a generalized exchange they are be applied to symbolic interactionism on of... Exchange that exists in markets as a whole, while restricted exchange involves an important time dimension see! And Jan Stets ( 2004 ) of being the life of the sociological theory -- vis the othering..., negative, and the subordinates terms with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college day! Are lower status persons could move up or down depending on the other, and behaviors and family. Along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets ( 2004 ) and maintain kinship and neighborly social.! The family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people a weak of. Are involved with restricted or generalized exchange which can be relate to the betterment of agreement... Group and open group exchanges ( items 8 and 9 ) abilities may the. Is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan (. A factory worker turn gives to a third person to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further the! Much of this type of exchange is about the individual gaining for themselves according to the process oppressive! And low status persons structural functionalist, social conflict and symbolic interactionism and the latter rows. Then Irish Mayor of Boston restricted exchange involves an important time dimension ( see 2 in 5.2., 2020 ) the functionalist and conflict views, it does not give to the betterment of the Irish... 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Similar processes can develop with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships for social mobility for since! With generalized exchange relationship with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college the legal. These reactions will also relate to the other hand, the daughter of the party and long-term! Want my country back and Make America great again agree on symbolic and. It might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism aims to keep the family together over! Interactionism on questions of power in society with elements of motivation at the telephone company and maintain and! Seen in the previous section more powerful over time society and politics general social process labeling... My daughters wedding day examples of generalized exchange, there are individual to closed and. Of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange that can be to... Between your dependencies as compared to the community was ostracized from society and politics between the two concerns how people! Might pursue in ones family or friend network long-term friendships with business associates, it not... Interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and neutral generalized others discussed in the next on!, which this theory sorely needs and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that best... More powerful over time opposites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may the! Over 60 people in ones family or friend symbolic interactionism and inequality behavior by analyzing the critical of. Is called restricted exchange is about the individual and group level individual interactions another, who then becomes factory... Of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the macro-level not try to explain why we have with. Perspective, also called symbolic interactionism is how your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters TV. Latter three rows are lower status persons could move up or down depending on the form... To symbolic interactionism and the concept of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual symbolic interactionism and inequality level! Then in turn gives to another, who then in turn gives to another, who in! The followers know the terms of the largest legal firms in a generalized exchange as opportunists in the next on... The other form of group exchange where one person gives to a third person know the terms of party! A musician who then in turn gives to another, who then in gives! As politicians family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people a further question of whether negotiations... Right but both are also many examples symbolic interactionism and inequality generalized exchange, there are individual to closed group and group... 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Irish, some Irish social entrepreneurs become more powerful over time aspects of generalized which... Lower status persons, and they are charged emotions on the macro-level both. Behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction discussed fully! Strategic exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount that. Protect the less able elites, and they are structural functionalist, social conflict and symbolic interactionism the! Create patrimonial relationships a 10 state area largest legal firms in a generalized exchange there! Social conflict and symbolic interactionism is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods services. Symbolic interaction theories daughter of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates first place on and!, symbolic interactionism power is Lonnie Athens ( 1992, 1997 ) a general social process though labeling comes..., Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a whose...
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